Learning an Embodied Visual Language: Four Imitation Strategies Available to Sign Learners

The parts of the body that are used to produce and perceive signed languages (the hands, face, and visual system) differ from those used to produce and perceive spoken languages (the vocal tract and auditory system). In this paper we address two factors that have important consequences for sign language acquisition. First, there are three types of lexical signs: one-handed, two-handed symmetrical, and two-handed asymmetrical. Natural variation in hand dominance in the population leads to varied input to children learning sign. Children must learn that signs are not specified for the right or left hand but for dominant and non-dominant. Second, we posit that children have at least four imitation strategies available for imitating signs: anatomical (Activate the same muscles as the sign model), which could lead learners to inappropriately use their non-dominant hand; mirroring (Produce a mirror image of the modeled sign), which could lead learners to produce lateral movement reversal errors or to use the non-dominant hand; visual matching (Reproduce what you see from your perspective), which could lead learners to produce inward-outward movement and palm orientation reversals; and reversing (Reproduce what the sign model would see from his/her perspective). This last strategy is the only one that always yields correct phonological forms in signed languages. To test our hypotheses, we turn to evidence from typical and atypical hearing and deaf children as well as from typical adults; the data come from studies of both sign acquisition and gesture imitation. Specifically, we posit that all children initially use a visual matching strategy but typical children switch to a mirroring strategy sometime in the second year of life; typical adults tend to use a mirroring strategy in learning signs and imitating gestures. By contrast, children and adults with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) appear to use the visual matching strategy well into childhood or even adulthood. Finally, we present evidence that sign language exposure changes how adults imitate gestures, switching from a mirroring strategy to the correct reversal strategy. These four strategies for imitation do not exist in speech and as such constitute a unique problem for research in language acquisition.

Keywords: American Sign Language (ASL); Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD); imitation; language acquisition; sign language; visual perspective-taking.

Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) is an evidence-based treatment for individuals with ASD that targets social communication skills, most notably social motivation. The aim of the current study was to map microanalytic changes in social communication during dyadic child-therapist interactions following a 16-week trial of PRT. We proposed that a microanalytic approach would allow us to meticulously outline the dynamics of the “building blocks” of children’s discourse, stressing certain aspect that might go unnoticed in global methods of coding. We hypothesized that PRT would improve measures of linguistic social communication in children.

We utilized continuous microanalysis of behavior to explore changes in social communication during PRT sessions in 20 high-functioning children with ASD (ages 4–7 years). For each child, two videotaped PRT sessions – at the beginning and end of these 16 weeks – were coded for vocalizations and verbalizations. This allowed us to compare the amount, fluency, adequacy and reciprocity of social communication between child and therapist at the early versus final stages of PRT.

Results

Compared to baseline, at endpoint, children increased their overall use of vocalizations as well as the congruency of their responses to those of the therapist. The amount of non-congruent responses also dropped significantly. Additionally, children improved in measures of conversational fluency and use of self-referential pronouns.

Conclusions

These results provide a mapping of microanalytic changes in social and linguistic communication that occur during PRT and point to children’s improvement in social communication behavior leading to greater social reciprocity and conversational synchrony following treatment.

Keywords

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)
Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT)
Microanalysis
Social communication
Vocalizations
Verbalizations

Problem solving between parents and teachers is critical to maximizing student outcomes. The current study examined the associations among the different components of problem solving, as well as the relationship between various characteristics and problem solving in parents and teachers of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Participants were 18 teachers and 39 parents of children with ASD. Parents and teachers completed a demographic survey, phone interview, and dyad observation. Results indicated that parent and teacher problem solving strategies were correlated with each other. Lower-income parents and parents interacting with White teachers displayed less problem solving. Findings suggest that school-based service delivery models to improve problem solving should consider both skill development, as well as the sociodemographic characteristics that parents and teachers bring to their interactions.

Keywords: autism spectrum disorder; communication; family involvement; parent–teacher relationships; problem solving.

Little research examines the best ways to improve communication between parents and teachers of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and its effect on child outcomes. The present study tests an innovative parent-teacher consultation model, entitled Partners in School. The goal of Partners in School is to improve parent-teacher communication aboutevidence-based practices (EBPs), and subsequently, outcomes for children with ASD. Participants were 26 teachers and 49 parents of children with ASD from a large urban public school district. Parents and teachers completed measures of their communication and child outcomes prior to and after receiving consultation through Partners in School. Results indicated that parents and teachers perceived improvements in child outcomes after participation inPartners in School. Changes in parent-teacher communication also were associated with changes in some child outcomes. Discussionhighlights the important role of communication inconsultations targeting family-school partnerships for children with ASD.

Keywords: autism; autism spectrum disorder; consultation; family-school partnerships; parent-teacher communication; parent-teacher relationships.

Little research examines the best ways to improve communication between parents and teachers of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and its effect on child outcomes. The present study tests an innovative parent-teacher consultation model, entitled Partners in School. The goal of Partners in School is to improve parent-teacher communication aboutevidence-based practices (EBPs), and subsequently, outcomes for children with ASD. Participants were 26 teachers and 49 parents of children with ASD from a large urban public school district. Parents and teachers completed measures of their communication and child outcomes prior to and after receiving consultation through Partners in School. Results indicated that parents and teachers perceived improvements in child outcomes after participation inPartners in School. Changes in parent-teacher communication also were associated with changes in some child outcomes. Discussionhighlights the important role of communication inconsultations targeting family-school partnerships for children with ASD.

Keywords: autism; autism spectrum disorder; consultation; family-school partnerships; parent-teacher communication; parent-teacher relationships.

Several interventions have demonstrated efficacy in improving social outcomes for children with autism; however, few have been successfully implemented in schools. This study compared two implementation strategies to improve the use of a social engagement intervention for children with autism in public schools. In total, 31 children with autism in grades K-5 and 28 school personnel participated in a randomized controlled trial. Schools were randomized to (1) training in Remaking Recess, a social engagement intervention, or (2) training in Remaking Recess with implementation support. Linear regression with random effects was used to test the intervention effects on implementation fidelity and social outcomes (peer engagement, social network inclusion, and friendship nominations). In both groups, implementation fidelity improved after training but remained low. Children in the Remaking Recess with implementation support condition had significantly higher social network inclusion and received more friendship nominations than children in the Remaking Recess-only condition (p = 0.03). Children in both groups experienced reduced solitary engagement (p < 0.001) and increased joint engagement (p < 0.001). The results suggest that implementation supports may have an effect on outcomes above and beyond the intervention, and that further research is needed into the active intervention mechanisms.

Keywords: autism spectrum disorder; implementation; school; social engagement intervention.

Keywords: Autism spectrum disorder; Oxytocin; Reward; fMRI.

Symptoms of autism spectrum disorder may influence alliance in psychotherapy. This study examined therapeutic alliance and its relationship with child characteristics and anxiety treatment outcomes in youth with autism spectrum disorder. Youth ( N = 64) with autism spectrum disorder and co-occurring anxiety (7-16 years, IQ > 70) received 16 sessions of modular cognitive-behavioral therapy. Post-treatment therapist, youth and parent ratings of alliance as well as pre- and post-treatment ratings of child behavior were gathered. Ratings of alliance were commensurate to ratings seen in children without autism spectrum disorder. Measures of treatment outcome, but not pretreatment characteristics, were significantly associated with therapist ratings of alliance strength. Data suggest that therapeutic alliance may not be impaired in anxious youth with autism spectrum disorder and may be associated with treatment outcome.

Keywords: anxiety; autism spectrum disorder; cognitive-behavioral therapy; therapeutic alliance.

2018Alycia Halladay

Objective: The diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has been found to be remarkably stable but few studies have followed children not initially diagnosed with ASD beyond 3 years of age to examine late or delayed diagnoses. The present study used a prospective familial-risk design to identify children who had undergone multiple comprehensive assessments in preschool and were determined to be negative for ASD only to meet criteria for ASD when tested in middle childhood.

Method: Data were pooled across 3 research teams studying later-born siblings of children with ASD. Fourteen children met inclusion criteria for the late-diagnosed group and were compared with a large sample of high- and low-risk siblings from the same sites who had ASD or typical development (TD) outcomes at 3 years of age.

Results: As a group, the late-diagnosed children scored between the TD and ASD groups on most measures administered at 3 years and differed significantly from the ASD group on most measures. However, there was significant heterogeneity among the late-diagnosed cases. Seven showed very little evidence of ASD in preschool, whereas 7 demonstrated subtle, subthreshold symptomatology.

Conclusion: Some children with ASD might present with a subtle phenotype early in life or show a prolonged time course of symptom development. This emphasizes the need for screening and surveillance schedules that extend past 36 months and continued evaluation of any child who presents with atypical early development and/or high-risk status. The findings also shed light on reasons why the mean age of ASD diagnosis remains older than 4 years.

Keywords: autism spectrum disorder; diagnosis; diagnostic stability.